Trends in Hiv Prevalence Essay Example for Free

Trends in Hiv Prevalence EssayABSTRACThuman immunodeficiency virus preponderance in the k in a flashledge base is becoming increasingly high. As of mid-1998, the HIV/AIDS pandemic continues to spread unequ ally well-nigh the world. In m whatsoever cities in sub-Saharan Afri plunder countries more than a quarter of adolescent and middle-aged adults are infected with HIV, whereas in most developed countries, the number of annual AIDS cases continues to decrease. The status and of HIV epidemics in most other areas of the world remains un indisputable because of inadequate data on the prevalence of HIV-risk behaviours. Hence, this paper presentation seeks to examine the trends of HIV prevalence across the world taking all the continents into consideration.INTRODUCTIONHIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus is a lenticomputer virus, and like all viruses of this type, it attacks the immune system. Lentiviruses are in turn part of a larger congregation of viruses cognise as retroviruses. The name lentivirus literally means slow virus because they take such(prenominal) a long time to produce any contrary effects in the body. They cook been found in a number of different animals, including cats, sheep, horses and cattle. However, the most interesting lentivirus in terms of the investigation into the origins of HIV is the simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) that affects monkeys, which is believed to be at least 32,000 years old.It is without delay generally accepted that HIV is a descendant of a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus because certain overrefinements of SIVs bear a very close resemblance to HIV-1 and HIV-2, the twain types of HIV. HIV-2 for example corresponds to SIVsm, a strain of the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus found in the sooty mangabey (also known as the White-collared monkey), which is indigenous to western Africa.The more virulent, pandemic strain of HIV, namely HIV-1, was until new-fangledly more difficult to place. Until 1999, the closest counter part that had been identified was SIVcpz, the SIV found in chimpanzees. However, this virus still had certain significant differences from HIVThere are a number of positionors that may have contributed to the sudden spread of HIV, most of which occurred in the latter half of the twentieth century and these includes* Blood Transfusion* Drug Use* Mother-to-Child TransfusionORIGIN OF HIVThe origin of AIDS and HIV has discombobulate scientists ever since the illness showtime came to light in the premature 1980s. For over twenty years it has been the subject of fierce debate and the cause of countless arguments, with everything from a promiscuous flight attendant to a suspect vaccine programme being blamed.The first recognized case of AIDS occurred in the USA in the early 1980s. A number of gay men in New York and California suddenly began to develop rare opportunistic infections and cancers that seemed stubbornly resistant to any treatment. At this time, AIDS did not yet have a name , but it quickly became obvious that all the men were suffering from a frequent syndrome.The discovery of HIV, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, was made soon after. date some were initially resistant to acknowledge the connection (and indeed some remain so today), there is now clear evidence to prove that HIV causes AIDS. So, in order to find the source of AIDS, it is necessary to look for the origin of HIV, and find out how, when and where HIV first began to cause disease in humans.In February 1999 a group of researchers from the University of Alabama announced that they had found a type of SIVcpz that was almost identical to HIV-1. This particular strain was identified in a frozen sample taken from a captive member of the sub-group of chimpanzees known as Pan Troglodytes (P. t. troglodytes), which were once common in west-central Africa.The researchers (led by Paul Sharp of Nottingham University and Beatrice Hahn of the University of Alabama) made the discovery during the cours e of a 10-year long study into the origins of the virus. They claimed that this sample proved that chimpanzees were the source of HIV-1, and that the virus had at some point crossed species from chimps to humans.Their final findings were published two years later in Nature magazine. In this article, they concluded that wild chimps had been infected simultaneously with two different simian immunodeficiency viruses which had viral sex to form a third virus that could be passed on to other chimps and, more significantly, was assailable of infecting humans and causing AIDS.These two different viruses were traced back to a SIV that infected red-capped mangabeys and one found in greater spot-nosed monkeys. They believe that the hybridisation took place indoors chimps that had become infected with both strains of SIV after they hunted and killed the two smaller species of monkey.They also concluded that all three groups of HIV-1 namely Group M, N and O (see our strains and subtypes page for more information on these) came from the SIV found in P. t. troglodytes, and that each group represented a separate crossover event from chimps to humans.It has been known for a long time that certain viruses can pass between species. Indeed, the very fact that chimpanzees obtained SIV from two other species of primate shows just how easily this crossover can occur. As animals ourselves, we are just as susceptible. When a viral transfer between animals and humans takes place, it is known as zoonosis.The most commonly accepted theory on how zoonosis took place, and how SIV became HIV in humans is that of the hunter. In this scenario, SIVcpz was transferred to humans as a result of chimps being killed and eaten or their blood getting into cuts or wounds on the hunter. Normally the hunters body would have fought off SIV, but on a few occasions it adapted itself within its new human army and became HIV-1. The fact that there were several different early strains of HIV, each with a slightly different genetic make-up (the most common of which was HIV-1 group M), would gestate this theory every time it passed from a chimpanzee to a man, it would have developed in a slightly different way within his body, and consequently produced a slightly different strain.An article published in The Lancet in 20044 , also shows how retroviral transfer from primates to hunters is still occurring even today. In a sample of 1099 individuals in Cameroon, they discovered ten (1%) were infected with SFV (Simian Foamy Virus), an illness which, like SIV, was previously thought only to infect primates. All these infections were believed to have been acquired done the butchering and consumption of monkey and ape meat. Discoveries such as this have led to calls for an outright ban on bush meat hunting to save simian viruses being passed to humans. Others theories include* The oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory* The contaminated needle theory* The colonialism theory* The conspiracy th eoryFour of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows * A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. * A lymph node sample taken in 1960 from an adult female, also from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. * HIV found in thread samples from an American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969.A 1998 analysis of the plasma sample from 1959 suggested that HIV-1 was introduced into humans around the 1940s or the early 1950s. In January 2000, the results of a new study16 suggested that the first case of HIV-1 infection occurred around 1931 in West Africa. This estimate (which had a 15 year margin of error) was establish on a complex computer model of HIVs evolution.However, a study in 200817 dated the origin of HIV to between 1884 and 1924, much earlier than previous estimates. The researchers compared the viral while from 1959 (the oldest known HIV-1 specimen) to the newly discovered sequence from 1960 . They found a significant genetic difference between them, demonstrating diversification of HIV-1 occurred long before the AIDS pandemic was recognised.The authors suggest a long history of the virus in Africa and call Kinshasa the epicentre of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Central Africa. They propose the early spread of HIV was concurrent with the development of colonial cities, in which crowding of state increased opportunities for HIV transmission. If accurate, these findings imply that HIV existed before many scenarios (such as the OPV and conspiracy theories) suggest.Until recently, the origins of the HIV-2 virus had remained relatively unexplored. HIV-2 is thought to come from the SIV in Sooty Mangabeys rather than chimpanzees, but the crossover to humans is believed to have happened in a similar way (i.e. by means of the butchering and consumption of monkey meat). It is far rarer, significantly less infectious and progresses more slowly to AIDS than HIV-1. As a result, it infe cts far fewer people, and is mainly confined to a few countries in West Africa.In May 2003, a group of Belgian researchers published a report18 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. By analysing samples of the two different subtypes of HIV-2 (A and B) taken from infected individuals and SIV samples taken from sooty mangabeys, Dr Vandamme concluded that subtype A had passed into humans around 1940 and subtype B in 1945 (plus or minus 16 years or so). Her team of researchers also discovered that the virus had originated in Guinea-Bissau and that its spread was most potential precipitated by the independence war that took place in the country between 1963 and 1974 (Guinea-Bissau is a former Portuguese colony). Her theory was backed up by the fact that the first European cases of HIV-2 were discovered among Portuguese veterans of the war, many of whom had received blood transfusions or unsterile injections following injury, or had possibly had relationships with local women .TRENDS IN HIV prevalenceSince 2001, MEASURE Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) have included HIV testing in 31 countries. In 13 of these countries testing has been included in two surveys, which provides an opportunity to examine trends. However, trend data must be viewed with caution, as only some changes are statistically significant.Trends in HIV Prevalence In the charts below, changes in HIV prevalence that are statistically significant are marked with an asterisk and a star. While it may appear that HIV prevalence has decreased in most countries, these decreases are only statistically significant in the Dominican Republic, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. This means that in these countries, the change is large enough that it is unlikely that the decrease is due to chance alone it probably represents true change in the HIV prevalence in the population. In some countries, such as Tanzania, the decrease is statistically significant for the population as a whole, and for men, but not for women. In Cameroon, Burkina Faso, and Zimbabwe, HIV prevalence has decreased among both women and men.DHS surveys have not detected any change in HIV prevalence in Mali, Senegal, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Lesotho, or Zambia. What does this mean? Because HIV prevalence is a measure of all HIV infections in a population, a decrease in HIV prevalence could indicate that fewer people are becoming infected, and/or that more people with HIV have died in a population. Similarly, an increase in HIV prevalence could point to more new infections, and/or could indicate an increase in HIV-positive individuals living longer on anti-retroviral therapy.TRENDS IN HIV PREVALENCE IN ASIA PACIFIC REGIONWith over 60 percent if the worlds population, the Asia-Pacific Region presents a replete(p) diversity of HIV-related risk environments, in terms of behavioural, political and cultural factors. Within the framework of this diversity, there has also been a wide range of HIV epidemics and responses, both across and within countries. It is not therefore possible to present a simple analysis of the actual and potential situation of HIV infection in this vast region. Our understanding of the HIV epidemic and its determinants in the Asia-Pacific Region has improved substantially over the past 3-5 years, as a number of countries have employ comprehensive surveillance systems for HIV prevalence, and sexual and injecting risk behaviours. Despite these advances, a number of countries still have a limited capacity to assess the occurrence of HIV infection and related behaviours, and to monitor the impact of interventions.A recent factor of importance in the Asia-Pacific environment has been the economic tumult of the past year. While various predictions have been made of the potential impact on the HIV epidemic, it is not possible to state with any certainty whether their net effect allow for be to increase or decrease the incidence of risk behaviour or HIV transmission. Since extensive HIV transmission has been a very recent phenomenon in a number of Asia-Pacific countries, there has so far been little experience with the care and support of people with HIV-related illness. Apart from Australia, Thailand and Japan, few countries have a healthcare workforce, which is adequately prepared to care for substantial numbers of people developing HIV-related illness.Without simplifying too much, it is possible to classify the differing patterns of HIV transmission into broad categories, based on available surveillance data. In Australia and New Zealand, the virtually all HIV transmission has been through sex between men, and the incidence of transmission via this thoroughfare has long been recognized as having declined substantially in the 1980s. In a few countries, such as Thailand, Cambodia and parts of Myanmar and India, heterosexual transmission has been extensive, mediated through large-scale sex industries but extending now to the r egular partners of sex workers male clients.Some countries have HIV epidemics among injecting drug users (IDU) with limited associated heterosexual transmission. These include countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, and some areas of India and China. Other countries have limited, but well documented spread of HIV infections, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea. Several countries have not reported substantial numbers of HIV infection, but do not appear to have comprehensive, ongoing surveillance systems. Papua New Guinea, Pakistan and Bangladesh are countries which may have a substantial risk environment, and need to strengthence their surveillance activities.The analysis of HIV epidemic trends in the region becomes more meaningful when a counselling is placed on populations whose cultural and social affinity and networks transcend geopolitical borders. A new geography of HIV/AIDS in the region then emerges that helps recognize the foci of intense HIV s pread. These include large metropolitan areas in western and southern India (Mumbai, Chinnai) the India/Nepal border area the larger Golden Triangle, which reaches out to Federal Thailand, eastern Myanmar, but also encompasses the areas of Manipur in India and Yunnan in China and the Mekong delta area, which includes Cambodia and southern Vietnam. To gain better understanding of the dynamics of HIV epidemics, factors of affinity between populations as well as mobility patterns must be explored and mapped out.

Revenue Recognition Essay Example for Free

Revenue Recognition EssayThe revenue recognition principle is a excogitation of accrual accounting and one of the main principles of GAAP. The revenue recognition principle is a set of guidelines that helps accountants to identify when a revenue event has taken ass and how to appropriately record cash exchanges before, during, and after the revenue event. According to the revenue recognition principal, revenue must (1) be realized or realizable and (2) earned, in order to be recognized.According to the SEC revenue is realized when (1) Persuasive evidence of an arrangement exists, (2) Delivery has occurred or services have been rendered, (3) The sellers price to the buyer is fixed or determinable, and (4) Collectability is reasonably assured. It is essential for the users of financial statements to know that the real revenues argon recorded and disclosed and not fraudulent revenues. A constraint of GAAP that is relevant to the revenue recognition principle is the materiality p rinciple. Fraudulent revenues will create misstatements that could have a material effect on the decisions of financial statement users.In 2002, WorldCom a telecommunication party, filed for bankruptcy. It was later revealed that the company was involved with improper accounting in two major forms. First WorldCom lofty revenues to increase profits, thereby increasing stock prices, and increasing the satisfaction of stakeholders. Second, the company understated line costs. Revenue is important to users of financial statements because it helps them evaluate a companys performance and prospects. WorldCom violated the revenue recognition principle by creating an account that did not come from the operating activities of the companys sales channel.WorldCom named this fictional schedule incorporated unallocated account. This action was un estimable and illegal, and gave the company a very bad reputation. According to paragraph 25 of PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5, because of its import ance to powerful internal control over financial reporting, the auditor must evaluate the control environment at the company. As part of evaluating the control environment, the auditor should treasure the following,Does managements philosophy and operating style promote effective internal control over financial reporting? Has the company developed sound equity and ethical values, and more importantly, do all employees understand these values, particularly top management? Does the Board or audit committee understands and exercises heedlessness responsibility over financial reporting and internal control? The control environment is what sets the tone for an organization and is the foundation for all other components of internal control. It provides discipline and structure and reflects the ethical values, integrity and competencies of the organization.The control environment is very important to effective internal control over financial reporting to an audit client like WorldCom, because good designs clear prevent and detect frauds and errors. But because WorldCom had such a poor control environment, the company would require more testing for an audit. This shows that the board did not exercise oversight responsibilities over financial reporting or internal controls. According to PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5 paragraphs 26 27, the top-side adjusting journal entries are when the executives record the entries, or when the accountants are asked by the executives to record the entries.A valid use of top-side journal entries is to allocate income or expenses from a parent company to its subsidiaries. However, top-side adjustments can also be use to improperly reduce liability accounts and increase revenue or decrease expenses. Companies undergoing mergers, acquisitions or restructuring are particularly susceptible to the fraudulent misuse of top-side journal entries. unavoidable evidence to obtain include sales invoices, credit memos, customer master file list , analytical procedures, and accounting systems.In the auditing of WorldCom, we would require adjusting journal entries, the MonRev spreadsheets detailing revenue, the corporate unallocated schedule, the automated process for closing and consolidating operational revenue numbers, and propriety of a top-side journal entry made to their revenue account. We would also need the authorization of the chief financial officer or any officers. Good ethics is very significant for an organization. When ethical dilemmas are not recognized there could be serious consequences that could lead to imprisonment.In addition, a company will lose its reputation instantly. Assuming that Lorenzo and Taranto knew that the entries being proposed by Scott Sullivan were fraudulent they should not have recorded the journal entries as they were directed. If WorldCom had a control environment where it took more than three employees to conspire to commit such a large fraud, and where the board checked on the corp orate adjusting entries, this could have been prevented. Employees should be trained and guided by a code of ethics and observed with appropriate influences for violation

Light-driven Transport of Plasmonic Nanoparticles on Demand

Light-driven Transport of Plasmonic Nanoparticles on DemandAbstractWith the advance of science and technology, the control and movement of plasmonic nanoparticles can be achieved via optical maser hooks. The effect of the optical purpose tool has been tested before on the multiple particles 1. Here, this is proved that manipulation and transport of large plasmonic nanoparticles can be employ on the sample which antecedently prep ard. These verities include developments related to many technological applications.IntroductionMetal plasmonic nanoparticles are highly preferred because they have specific properties. These are amber and silver nanoparticles. As we know when the gentle hits the bulge out of the metal, a part of the light is reflected. Some of it is absorbed. Metal atoms have electron clouds that are constantly moving around them. The light which is absorbed by metal has energy. That energy causes the vibration of the electron clouds. The vibrations of the electron clo uds are called plasmon 2. If we look at the reflected light while we change an angle of relative incidence we see that reflected light intensity reduces. Resonance angle or SPR angle is the angle at which the maximum loss occurs on the intensity of the reflected light. Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is the total excitation at the closed surface of a small particle (see record 1). These entropys are about plasmonics. Plasmonics is an area that consists use of data transmission via plasmons and applications of its various electron orbits. project 1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR)Laser trap is a method which uses configurable lasers to hold atoms or particles and trap them in a restricted area. There are several different species of laser traps that can be used to trap a different kind of particles. atomic number 53 of the most common types of laser trap is the single-beam side force trap also known as optical tweezers or laser tweezers 3.Dielectric objects are interested in the center of the beam, relatively above the beam waist, shown in the mental image (see Figure 2). The force applied on the object depends linearly on its change of location from the trap center just as with a simple arc system 4.In contrast to other laser traps, the proposed exertion mechanism exploits transverse phase gradient forces that allows working with resonant and off-resonant wavelengths on both red/blue-detuned sides of the LSPR.Figure 2 Optical trap principleThe figure below (see Figure 3) shows us spectral absorption on bullion and silver nanoparticles. The trapped laser is cogitate on the sample. Specifically, it is considered colloidal silver NPs of one hundred fifty nm (10 nm thick triangular plate, LSPR at 950 nm) and gold NPs of 100 nm (sphere, LSPR at 570 nm). The laser wavelength is arranged 532 nm, which is on the blue-detuned side near the LSPR of gold NPs. In contrast, this wavelength being far from the LSPR of the silver NPs allows avo iding significant optical heating,Figure 3 Spectral absorbance of silver and gold nanoparticlesDark field illumination was applied to create an image of the nanoparticles. With the same microscope objective, focuses on the capture beam on the top glass slides, allowing NPs to be displayed depending on the scattered light (see Figure 4).Figure 4 Spectral absorbanceDark field illumination (or Dark field microscopy) is a method which creates the contrast between the object and the field around the prototype. In this method, the samples and the other materials shine on the dark background (see Figure 5).Figure 5 Principle of dark field microscopyOptical microscopes use dark field illumination technique for enhancing the contrast in unstained samples. The light penetrates the microscopes for illumination of the specimen. The condenser lens and objective lens focuses the light against the specimen. The center is blocked out. The specimen appears bright on a dark background.The nanopartic les are bounded by the upper glass lamella surrounding the sample (by transverse phase gradient forces, white arrows, and see Figure 6).Figure 6 The NPs are confined near the top glass c everywhereslipMethodsA dipolar NP with size a below the laser wavelength (a ) experiences time averaged radiation-induced forcesWhere, q = x, y, z is a placeholder for the coordinates, () = () + i () is the particle polarizability while is the permittivity of the surrounding medium, and E is the electric field of the focused laser beam.The particle experiences traverse scattering forcesWhere, I = E(x, y)2 and are the intensity and phase distri aloneions of the field with u, being normal and tangent vectors to the curve. Therefore, the transverse scattering forces in the normal and tangential directions naturally arise from the phase gradients along such directions.The laser traps have been created by focusing the following beam over the sample. This is the formula of beam shaping techniqueThe s ample was formed as like this the specimen was enclosed into a chamber made by attaching deuce glass coverslip (thickness 0.17 mm). A Scotch tape (thickness 50 m) was used as spacer between the coverslips. The nanoparticles were filled into the sample cell directly from the aqueous solution provided by the manufacturer 150 nm silver NPs (NanoCompo sixer Inc., 10 nm thick triangular plates, PVP coated, Lott. JMW1340) and 100 nm gold NPs (Sigma-Aldrich, citrate stabilized Au spheres, 742031, Lott. MKBS6913V).Results seam panel shows the intensity and phase of the laser trap focused according to their shapes (see Figure 7)Figure 7It shows us the density and the phase of the laser trap (plane z1) focused into a circle.It shows us the density and the phase of the laser trap focused into a square.It shows us the density and the phase of the laser trap focused into a triangle.For each case, the XZ plane profile is shown in a1, b1 and c1 accordingly. In order to display the shape of the tor oidal manoeuvre displayed in each case of a zoom item (inset) a1, b1 and c1 of the density distribution in plane z2. In the lower panel (a-c) a rotating flow of bound NPs is shown in the toroidal channel for each trap shape. Time skipped images of the stream were also shown5.Six small clusters of nanoparticles attached to the coverslip have been used to mimic targets or obstacles as displayed in Figure 8Figure 8(a) Small clusters of gold nanoparticles which anchored glass microscope slide are carried along a curved Bzier path through six target objects. The intensity and phase of the trapped light (charge l = -30) is configured to avoid these objects as shown in the bottom panel of (b, c). In part (d), proposed flack to automated route finding based on several Bzier curves displayed with different colors. (e,f) distributions of reciprocal and propulsive forces acting on particles6-9.DiscussionIn this article, gold and silver nanoparticles were controlled and transferred in a prepa red sample before thanks to optical manipulation technique. This allows for guiding metal nanoparticles along tailored trajectories for interaction with objects, exploiting off-resonant but also resonant laser wavelengths for simultaneous nanoparticle heating. Their optical response can be tuned in the visible and infrared spectral range as a function of the nanoparticle shape and size. These nanoparticles strongly absorb and scatter light in the spectral region near to their localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), and therefore, can be applied as heat nanosources for lithography, photoacustic imaging, photothermal therapy, etc. In this experiment the laser wavelength was 532 nm5.References1.Rodrigo, J.A. and T. Alieva, Freestyle 3D laser traps tools for studying light-driven particle dynamics and beyond. Optica, 2015. 2(9) p. 812-815.2.Esentrk, E.N. and A.H. Walker, Anisotropik ekilli Altn Nanoparacklarnn Sentezi, Karakterizasyonu ve Fonksiyonlandrlmas.3.https//people.smp.uq.ed u.au/TimoNieminen/trapping.html4.https//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tweezers5.Alieva, j.A.R.a.T., Light-driven transport of plasmonic nanoparticles on demand. scientific reports, 2016.6.Carey, K.B., et al., Enhancing Readiness-to-Change Substance Abuse in Persons with Schizophrenia A Four-Session Motivation-Based Intervention. Behavior Modification, 2001. 25(3) p. 331-384.7.Sanchot, A., et al., Plasmonic nanoparticle networks for light and heat concentration. ACS nano, 2012. 6(4) p. 3434-3440.8.Lal, S., S. Link, and N.J. Halas, Nano-optics from perceive to waveguiding. Nature photonics, 2007. 1(11) p. 641-648.9.Svoboda, K. and S.M. Block, Optical trapping of metallic Rayleigh particles. Optics letters, 1994. 19(13) p. 930-932.

EndoPredict and Mammaprint Risk Classification

EndoPredict and Mammaprint Risk ClassificationComparison of gamble classification mingled with EndoPredict and Mammaprint in ER-positive/HER2-negative primary invasive breast pubic louse.Alberto Pelez-Garcia, Laura Yebenes, Alberto Berjon, Antonia Angulo, Pilar Zamora, Jose Ignacio Snchez-Mendez, Enrique Espinosa, Andres Redondo, Victoria Heredia, Marta Mendiola, Jaime Feliu, David HardissonCorresponding Author David Hardisson, MD, PhD Department of Pathology Hospital Universitario La Paz, IdiPAZ Paseo de la Castellana, 261 28046 Madrid, Spain.ABSTRACT draw a bead onTo compargon the prognostic performance of the EndoPredict assay with the MammaPrint scores obtained for the same cancer samples on 40 estrogen-receptor positive/HER2-negative breast carcinomas.MethodsFormalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded invasive breast carcinoma interweaves that were previously analyse with MammaPrint as part of routine care of the patients, andwere classified as high- guess (20 patients) and low-risk (20 patients), were selected to be analyzed by the EndoPredict assay, a second generation gene fashion assay that combines expression of 8 genes (EP score) with two clinicopathological factors (neoplasm size of it and nodal status, EPclin score).ResultsThe EP score classified 15 patients as low-risk and 25 patients as high-risk. EPclin re-classified 5 of the 25 EP high-risk patients into low-risk, resulting in a total of 20 high-risk and 20 low-risk tumors. EP score and MammaPrint score were significantly correlated (p=0.008). Twelve of 20 samples classified as low-risk by MammaPrint were also low-risk by EP score (60%). 17 of 20 MammaPrint high-risk tumors were also high-risk by EP score. The overall concordance between EP score and MammaPrint was 72.5%. EPclin score also correlated with MammaPrint results (p=0.004). Discrepancies between both tests occurred in 10 cases 5 MammaPrint low-risk patients were classified as EPclin high-risk and 5 high-risk MammaPrint were classified as low-risk by EPClin (overall concordance 75%).ConclusionsThis study demonstrates a moderate concordance between MammaPrint and EndoPredict. Differences in results could be explained by the inclusion of different gene sets in each platform, and the inclusion of clinical parameters, such(prenominal) as tumor size and nodal status, in the EndoPredict test.KeywordsBreast cancer prognosis gene expression signatures EndoPredict MammaPrintINTRODUCTIONBreast cancer is the around vernacular cancer and the second most frequent cause of cancer death among women in developed countries. Approximately 231,840 new cases of invasive breast cancer and 40,290 deaths are expected among US women in 2015 1.Currently, the decision on assistant treatment for breast cancer patients is based on risk assessment using clinicopathological criteria, such as patient age, menopausal status, axillary lymph node status, tumor size, tumor grade, estrogen receptor (ER)/progesterone receptor (PgR) expression, HE R2 status, and Ki67 score. However, decision making in adjuvant treatment of women with ER-positive/HER2-negative early breast cancer remains a difficult task. Routinely, all of these patients will receive adjuvant hormonal treatment. However, a substantial harmonize of these patients are also treated with adjuvant chemotherapy, although a significant part of these will not achieve a further reduction of their risk of issue 2.Therefore, a major challenge for clinical oncologists is to identify those patients who will not benefit for adjuvant chemotherapy, and those who are more likely to develop recurrence, so that the most appropriate therapeutic regime can be administered 2, 3.In recent years, molecular characterization of breast cancer has contributed to broaden our understanding of breast cancer as a heterogeneous disease, and led to the development of a variety of prognostic and predictive gene signatures 4. Morever, these assays may also be useful in recurrence prediction an d treatment decision making 5. One of the most widely used tests is the MammaPrint (MP) assay (Agendia Laboratories, Amsterdam, The Netherlands), which is a prognostic score performed by a central laboratory that was cleared by the FDA in 2007. MP was initially limited by its requirement for fresh tissue, but it is now validated for formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue 6. MP measures the expression of 70 genes using a microarray platform, and reports a binary risk classification (low-risk or high-risk) for recurrence without adjuvant chemotherapy. This information is intended to chuck up the sponge patients at low-risk of recurrence from receiving adjuvant chemotherapy, with its attendant morbidity. It is not intended to predict the response, per se, to chemotherapy rather, it helps to select patients who are likely to benefit from chemotherapy from a prognostic point of weigh 7. More recently developed, the EndoPredict assay (EP) (Sividon Diagnostics GmbH, Cologne, Ger many), is a diagnostic test based on gene expression data in combination with clinicopathological risk parameters to assess the risk of distant metastasis in patients with ER-positive/HER2-negative primary breast cancer if treated with adjuvant endocrine therapy alone 8. This test measures the expression of eight cancer-related genes of arouse (BIRC5, UBE2C, DHCR7, RBBP8, IL6ST, AZGP1, MGP and STC2) and three reference genes (CALM2, OAZ1 and RPL37A) to calculate a molecular risk score (EP score). The molecular risk score is then combined with the nodal status and tumor size resulting in a molecular-clinicopathological hybrid score (EPclin score) with improved prognostic power. Using a predefined cutoff value, patients are stratified into low- or high-risk of distant recurrence. The test can be carried out on routinely processed and archived FFPE tissue, and is designed to be performed decentrally 9, 10. EP was validated in three randomized endocrine phase tierce trials with patien ts with ER-positive/HER2-negative node negative and node positive breast carcinomas 5, 8. The EP provided additional prognostic information to conventional risk factors such as leveling, quantitative ER, or Ki67 and outperformed risk classification by clinical guidelines. Moreover, it could be demonstrated that EP is prognostic for early and late metastasis 5, 11.The EPclin score was also directly compared to purely clinical risk classifications (like St. Gallen, German S3, and NCCN) and found to be superior to these classifiers 11.The objective of this study was to compare the concordance of EndoPredict results in 40 ER-positive/HER2-negative breast carcinomas which were previously tested with MammaPrint and categorized as low-risk (20 patients) or high-risk (20 patients). We further evaluate TargetPrint (Agendia Laboratories), a commercially available mribonucleic acid-based gene expression test that quantitatively determines gene expression levels of ER, PgR, and HER2.MATERIALS AND METHODSPatients and tumor samplesThis study composite 40 patients with ER-positive/HER2-negative early-stage breast carcinoma. All patients underwent surgery between March 2012 and December 2015 at the University Hospital La Paz, Madrid, Spain. Data on age and tumor characteristics were tranquil for all patients. The surgical specimens were fixed in 10% buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin. Four-m thick sections were stained with hematoxylin-eosin for histological diagnosis. Sections (10m) with at least 40% of tumor cellularity were selected for the study.Immunohistochemistry for ER/PR/HER2 and Ki67 and Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for HER2All cases were reviewed by two breast pathologist (DH and LY) to assess tumor grade (using the Nottingham histological three-tier grading system), tumor size, nodal status, ER, PgR, HER-2, and Ki67 expression. The expression of ER (clone EP1 Dako, Glostrup, Denmark, prediluted), PgR (clone PgR1294 Dako, prediluted), and Ki 67 (clone MIB1 Dako, prediluted) were determined by immunohistochemistry (IHC) during routine pathologic examination. ER and PgR status was determined based on the percentage of positive nuclei in the invasive neoplastic compartment of the tissue. Tumors were classified as ER- or PgR-positive when 1% invasive tumor cells showed definite nuclear staining, regardless of staining intensity. Ki67 was evaluated as the percentage of positively stained nuclear cancer cells (regardless of staining intensity). HER2 expression was evaluated with the HercepTest kit (Dako) and scored as 0, 1+, 2+, or 3+, according to the FDA scoring system. Tumors scored as 2+ were re-tested with FISH using the HER2 IQFISH PharmDx kit (Dako).Mammaprint TestThe MammaPrint test was performed on representative paraffin blocks at the centralized Agendia Laboratories (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) blinded for clinical and histological data as part of routine care of the patients included in this study. Additionally to MammaPrint, TargetPrint assay, an additional test that is an alternative measurement of ER, PgR, and HER2 to IHC/FISH assessment, was also performed.EndoPredict TestThe same tumor tissue block used for MammaPrint testing in each case was used for EP test. RNA extraction was performed as previously described 9. Total RNA was extracted from one 10-m whole formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue section using a silica-coated magnetic bead-based method with Tissue Preparation Reagents (Sividon Diagnostics). Expression of eight genes-of-interest (AZGP1, BIRC5, DHCR7, IL6ST, MGP, RBBP8, STC2, UBE2C), three normalization genes (CALM2, OAZ1, RPL37A) as well as the amount of residual genomic DNA (HBB) were assessed by the EP assay (Sividon Diagnostics). Gene expression was assessed by one-step RT-qPCR using the SuperScript tierce PLATINUM One-Step Quantitative RT-PCR System with ROX (Invitrogen, Karlsruhe, Germany) according to manufacturers instructions in a VERSANT kPCR Molecular System (Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Erlangen, Germany). EP and EPclin scores were determined as published earlier 8, 9 using the EndoPredict Report Generator software which is available online (www1.endopredict.com). The predefined cut-offs for diagnostic decisions were applied to stratify patients into low- or high-risk groups EP low-risk (

What Ways Does An Individuals Behaviour Change?

What Ways Does An Individuals Behaviour Change?This essay will explore whether an several(prenominal)s behaviour truly changes when they be part of a collection through the retainer of various perspectives, methods and underpinning epistemological assumptions and will take the viewpoint that an individuals behaviour does change when s/he is part of a crowd, however it is necessary to consider the place setting, much(prenominal) as societal and ethnical factors and the importance of experience, interactions, loving norms and value as one branch of well-disposed psychology, or one form of proveation cannot richly predict or explain group and individual behaviour. The most prominent debates, theories and studies in relation to group behaviour will be discussed from a multi-perspective position, in the main exploring the social and cognitive aspects of group behaviour, as well as the methodology of experimentation and how group behaviour is measured. This will ensure that a r eductionist advent to the subject is avoided. Key factors involved in group behaviour include devotion, conformity, groupthink, social identity operator theory (Tajfel, 1979), prejudice, stereotypes and schemas, which will be discussed and evaluated alongside relevant question throughout the essay. This is repayable to how these factors bend how an individuals behaviour changes under group influence, for example how Aschs line test portrayed the effects of bulk influence (Asch, 1952).A group has been defined by some theorists as deuce or more individuals who perceive themselves as creation members of the group or social category (Turner, 1982 Brown, 2000). congregation behaviour refers to a situation in which individuals interact in small or large groups, within these groups there whitethorn be certain norms, set which be internalised within the individual (Vygotsky, 1978), communication patterns and status differentials. The majority of search conducted in the area of gr oup behaviour is mainly establish in the data-based psychology perspective however critical and qualitative psychologists argue there is a lesser focus on the subscribe of behaviour in context which ideally involves the acknowledgment of the impact of society and culture on group behaviour (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 Fox Prilleltensky, 1997 Gergen, 1973 Himmelweit Gaskell, 1990 Renshon Duckitt, 2000), social roles, environments, experiences, dealingships, and a movement away from laboratory based measurements. Within mainstream psychology there is still a focus on the cognitive and affective aspects of behaviour, whilst individual level processes which are fundamental in social and group processes are not always acknowledged. According to Nafstad Blakar (Nafstad Blakar, 2012) A all-embracing-fledged social psychology cannot be based on experimental laboratory enquiry solo. This is because it is necessary to concentrate on methodological approaches for future research as much of t he quantitative experimental psychology involved in addressing and measuring group behaviour does not acknowledge core social aspects such as social life, social behaviour and human development as social beings. bingle key area within group behaviour is obedience. The study of obedience entails the tendency to comply with orders from an say-so figure and where group behaviour is concerned obedience entails an individual adapting their actions in order to comply with the groups wishes or rules. Concerned with the atrocities committed during Nazi Germany, Milgram explored the effects of obedience under the influence of authority (Milgram, 1974). Participants, who witnessed the confederate being strapped into a chair with electrodes in another room, were given the role of teacher whilst a confederate of the experimenter was given the role of learner The teacher was expected to broadcast an electric shock for every wrong answer in what they were lead to believe was an experiment about learning, the shocks increased at 15 volt increments and when the thespian refused to administer the shocks, they were given standard instructions (prods) by the experimenter, who wore a lab coat, therefore acting as an authority figure within the group. 65% of musicians administered the full 450 volts, suggesting that obedience is related to situational pushs.In order to attempt to explain why individuals would behave in the way they did during the experiment, Milgram proposed the role theory. The agency theory according to Milgram consists of two states the autonomous state, in which individuals make decisions on their own ideas and beliefs, and the agentic state, in which in which individuals give up responsibility and defer the responsibility to those of a higher status. Although the agency theory does attempt to explain rare occurrences such as the obedience in events such as the Mai Lai Massacre and Nazi Germany, there whitethorn be other explanations for the obedience, a s suggested by French and Raven (French Raven, 1959) who suggested there are five different types of world power legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, expert power and referent power. It is also important to note that the agency theory is more of a description of how society works, rather than explaining why individuals obey authority figures against their bump judgement in some situations. The theory of groupthink could also be applied in order to explain the phenomological behaviour in Milgrams study, as groupthink entails group decisions which are often irresponsible, dangerous, made under extreme pressure and dominated by a powerful leader, therefore Milgrams theory alone by not be sufficient in exploring individual and group behaviour.There are several ethical issues within Milgrams study such as the lack of debriefing, the distress caused to the participants and dissembling about the nature of the study. Also, despite Milgram carrying out several variations of his true experiment, the experiment has methodological flaws. Due to the laboratory setting of the experiment there was a distinct lack of ecological validity as the obedience portrayed in compliance with an authority figure does not necessarily represent and cannot be verbalize to real life social interactions.It has been suggested that Milgrams experiment became caught up in the broader processes of psychologisation (De Vos, 2009). This is due to the power of science and the authority of experimentation which is suggested in the study, specifically where the experimenter acts as an authority figure within the peer-group, urging participants to continue with the experiment. Also, it has been argued that the experiment dramatizes peoples capacity for violence (Brannigan, 2004) and only demonstrates a short-term measure of obedience (Stainton Rogers et al, 1995). Taking these points into consideration, the need for a multi-perspective view of group behaviour can be reiterated as a co ncentration on laboratory experiments alone does not fully account as an explanation of group behaviour and obedience, this is further evidenced by the suggestion that Milgram does not make a concise conclusion concerning the study.We are led to no conclusions about obedience, really, but rather are exhorted to be impressed with the power of your situation as an influence context (Parker, 2000). Further replications of Milgrams original study were conducted in order to address some of the issues which were presented within the experiment, such as ethical issues (Burger 2009) and methodological flaws (Meeus and Raaijmakers, 1995), therefore taking a further qualitative stance on the original study. A solely experimental approach to the study of obedience within individual and group behaviour whitethorn not necessarily be useful, although the phenomenon of obedience is portrayed in Milgrams experiment, no true conclusion or explanation is extendn due to a lack of acknowledgement of social, political and cultural factors, and a reliance on quantitative and experimental social psychology.Another area of study within individual and group behaviour is conformity. Conformity is the influence on an individual which may alter their beliefs or behaviour in response to the pressure of a group in order to internalise or fit in with a group. According to Man (Man, 1969) there are three types of conformity these are normative, which is a desire to be liked by the group, informational, which is a desire to be correct and identification which is conformity to a social role.Aschs well known line study explores normative conformity due to the participants attempts to avoid rejection from the group and informational conformity due to the participants desire to be correct. Asch suggests that an individual will attempt to internalise with a group and display the effects of majority influence (Asch, 1952). The experiment consisted of a participant who was given a selection of li nes and was asked to judge which was most similar to a comparison line in the heraldic bearing of others, who were actually confederates of the experimenter who were instructed to purposely give incorrect answers. 5% of participants conformed to all of the trials, 33% conformed to over half of the trials and 25% did not conform at all. Several variations of the original experiment were conducted when one confederate was present none of the participants conformed, however when more than three confederates were present strong conformity occurred. This suggests the effects of majority influence and pressure on the individual to act in a manner in accordance to a group, the desire to be liked and avoidance of rejection from the group.Aschs line study distinctly lacked ecological validity due to its artificial laboratory setting, which suggests that the experiment had low ecological validity and may be difficult to generalise to a real-life situation. A replication of Aschs original exp eriment in which the participants were British engineering, mathematics and chemistry students suggested low reliability within the original study, out of the 396 trials, a participant conformed with the incorrect majority on only one trial.. Aschs experiment has been referred to as a child of its time, due to the social, political and historical context in which Aschs experiment was conducted, as conformity was a social norm during Post-World War Two era, whilst the notion of individualism was rejected (Perrin and Spencer, 1980). The lack of reliability in the study may be due to a change in what is socially acceptable rather than a methodological flaw, and therefore it is of importance to acknowledge social norms and set whilst studying group behaviour as well as the notion that group behaviour cannot be based within experimental psychology alone (Nafstad and Blakar, 2012).One prominent theory which may be applied to real life examples of group behaviour is neighborly personal identity Theory (Tajfel, 1979). Social Identity Theory details how membership to a group gives an individual a sense of social identity, these groups are important in enhancing an individuals self-esteem and pride, therefore individuals may attempt to increase the status of their own group, or simply discriminate against an out-group through social categorisation. Discrimination against an out-group occurs through prejudice and stereotypes which occurs through three cognitive processes social categorisation, which is the decision about which group you belong to, social identification, which is more overt identification with the in-group, and social comparison which is comparison to the out-group which is believed to be inferior, this in writhe increases the self-esteem of the in-group (Tajfel Turner, 1979). Although it can be argued that Social Identity Theory can provide a concise and full explanation for the formation if in-groups and out-groups, it does not all the way define how the process occurs and also is not a predictor of behaviour (Hogg, 2000). Therefore, although Social Identity Theory can explain some aspects of group behaviour, it may not be applicable to real world phenomenon as it cannot provide full explanation for real-life group behaviour such as acts of terrorism.In real-world research, such as a psychological approach to terrorism, it has been suggested that it is necessary not to allow cognitive biases to cloud the analysis of political situations (Abrahms, 2006 Scheier, 2007). Therefore, experimental psychology alone may not be useful in analysing and explaining real-life situations. However, Zimbardo (Zimbardo, 2002) argues that terrorism is all about psychology as it is key to understanding the motives, values and ideology of terrorists therefore it is exculpate there is debate as to how real-life examples of group behaviour should be studied.Although many of the most prominent studies in the area of group and individual behaviour are based within experimental psychology, there is a tendency for discursive, critical and qualitative psychologists to argue that there is a need for the exploration of social norms, values and experiences, rather than the notion held by experimental psychology which simply acknowledges that these factors have an affect. When considering the experiments and debates which are discussed within the study of group behaviour, in order for future research to attempt to provide a more concise explanations of group behaviour it may be appropriate to concentrate on people on an individual level within context as well as their actions in a group situation, for example acknowledging their experiences, relationships, values and social roles in order to draw conclusions as to why individuals act in accordance to a group instead of simply displaying extreme phenomena such as in the cases of Milgram and Zimbardo. It has been suggested that current mainstream social psychology is primarily charact erised by the study of the interactions between the individual and groups through experimental study and as a result of this, context such as social and cultural levels have not been represented to their true extent (Doise, 1982/1986).ReferencesAbrahms, M. Why Terrorism Does Not Work, International Security, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp.42-78.Asch, S. E. Social psychology. New York PrenticeHall, 1952Brannigan, A. (2004) The airlift and Fall of Social Psychology The Use and Misuse of the Experimental Method. New Jersey Aldine Transaction.Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press.Brown, R. (2000) Group Processes dynamics within and between groups (2nd ed.), Oxford, Blackwell.Burger, J. (2009). Replicating Milgram Would people still obey today? American Psychologist, 64, 1-11.De Vos, J. (2009) Now that you know, how do you feel The Milgram experiment and psychologisation. Annual Review of Critical Psycho logy, 7, 223-246. Accessed at http//www.discourseunit.com/arcp/7.htm on 24th November 2010.Doise, W. (1982/1986). Lexplication en psychologie sociale/Levels of explanation in social psychology. Paris Editions de la Maison des Sciences de lHomme. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Fox, D., Prilleltensky, I. (Eds.). (1997). Critical Psychology. An Introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications.French, J. R. P., Raven, B. The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright, A. Zander. Group dynamics. New York Harper Row, 1959.Gergen, K. J. (1973). Social psychology as history. Journal of personality and social psychology, 26, 309-320.Himmelweit, H. T., Gaskell, G. (Eds.). (1990). Societal Psychology. London Sage Publications.Hogg, Michael A. Williams, Kipling D. (2000). From I to we Social identity and the collective self. Group Dynamics Theory, Research, and Practice 4 (1) 81-97Man, L (1969). Social Psychology. New York WileyMeeus, W.H.J., Raaijmakers, Q.A.W. (1995). Obedience in mod ern society The Utrecht studies. Journal of Social Issues, 51 (3), 155-175.Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority An experimental view. New York Harper RowParker*, I. (2000). Obedience. Granta, 71(4) 99-125.Perrin, S. Spencer, C. (1980) The Asch effect a child of its time? Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 32, 405-406.Nafstad, H. E. Blakar, R. M. (2012). Ideology and Social Psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 6 (4), 282-294.Renshon, S. A., Duckitt, J. (2000). Political psychology. Cultural and crosscultural foundations. London MacMillan PressScheier, B. (2007) The Evolutionary Brain Glitch that Makes Terrorism Fail, WIRED. Accessed at http//www.wired.com/politics/ shelter/commentary/securitymatters/2007/07/securitymatters_0712 on 25th October 2007.Stainton Rogers, R., Stenner, P., Gleeson, K. Stainton Rogers, W. (1995). Social Psychology A Critical Agenda. Polity CambridgeTajfel, H., Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup c onflict. In W. G. Austin S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA Brooks/ColTurner, J. C. (1982). Toward a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup behavior (pp. 15-40). Cambridge, England Cambridge University Press.Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society The Development of higher(prenominal) Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press.Zimbardo, P.G. (2002) Psychology to Play Key Role in National Centre on Terrorism. Monitor on Psychology, 33 (11), December 2002. Accessed at on 23 January 2006.

Brecht and Dudow Essay -- Film Analysis

Kuhle Wampe (Brecht and Dudow, 1931) is often noted as the first communist film produced in Weimar Germany and was produced by a collective of men, intemperately involved in the formation and success of Weimar cinema. The collaborative team consisted of Hanns Eisler, who composed the musical score for Berlin Symphony of a Great City (Walter Ruttmann, 1927), Ernst Ottwald, a distinguished novelist and screen writer, primary director Slatan Dudow who participated heavily in the production of Metropolis (Fritz Lang, 1927) and finally Bertolt Brecht. The aforementioned trio heavily influenced the industrialised surrounding that encompass the location and narrative of Kuhle Wampe, however, fellow script writer and co-director Bertolt Brecht had very little experience in film production excursus from aiding the preparation for Karl Valentins The Mysteries of a Hairdressers Shop (1923). Brechts influence upon Kuhle Wampe came much more in the form of philosophical grounding, with himself, at the condemnation developing his materialist aesthetics in trying to conceptualise the answer to the question what is political art? Bringing together politics and art formulae, in this outcome montage, we can assess the messages that were conveyed through the use of montage and how it was used as a tool of political suggestion. From the opening sequence, Kuhle Wampes stylisation appropriates itself with that of Soviet montage, of which is Sergei Eisensteins theories are based on the idea that montage originates in the collision between different shots in an illustration of the idea of thesis and antithesis. This basis allowed him to designate that montage is inherently dialectical, thus it should be considered a demonstration of Marxism and Hegelian philos... ...h the montage sequences in Kuhle Wampe.Works CitedBrooker, Peter (2004) Key words in Brechts theory and practice of theatre in Brecht. Eds. Peter Thomson and Glendyr Sacks. Cambridge University Press, Pp. 185-200.Ei senstein, Sergei Jay Leyda (translator) (1947). The Film Sense. Hardcourt Brace and CompanyEisenstein, Sergei Jay Leyda (translator) (1977) The Film Form essays in film theory. Hardcourt Brace and CompanyKracauer, Siegfried (2004) Montage from From Caligari to Hitler A Psychological History of the German Film (1947) in German Essays on Film. Eds. Richard W. McCormack and Alison Guenther-Pal. New York & London Continuum, Pp. 181-189.Silbermann, Marc (1995) The Rhetoric of Image Slatan Dudow and Bertolt Brechts Kuhle Wampe or Who Owns the universe in German Cinema Texts in Context. Detroit Wayne State University Pp. 34-48.

Agent Orange :: essays research papers

component Orange Link Diabetes Strongly Associated With Vietnam Exposure to Pesticide U.S. style get out planes spray the defoliant chemical Agent Orange over dense vegetation in South Vietnam in this 1966 photo. Dioxin is the component of Agent Orange linked to numerous health effects in laboratory animals. (AP Photo) By Robert Burns The Associated Press W A S H I N G T O N, March 29 An Air Force study released today confirmed a connection, long suspected by Vietnam veterans, among wartime impression to the weed orca Agent Orange and diabetes. The Air Force said the link so far is only statistical and is yet to be proven conclusively by biological study. The National Academy of Sciences, a research arm of the government, is reviewing the way outs and is to report to the Department of Veterans Affairs, which will decide possible compensation to veterans. The study found a 47 percent increase in diabetes among veterans with the highest levels of dioxin in their bloodstream. Dioxin is the compound in Agent Orange linked to health effects in laboratory animals. The result is found on 1997 physical examinations of 1,000 Air Force veterans who were exposed to Agent Orange during the nine years that it was used as a defoliant and crop killer in Vietnam. Joel Michalek, the lead investigator in the study, told a Pentagon news conference that because studies have not yet explained a biological relation between dioxin and diabetes, the Air Force cannot say conclusively that wartime exposure to Agent Orange is a cause of diabetes. Still, he said, the latest results provide the strongest evidence to date that herbicide exposure is associated with diabetes. He said the Air Force knew as far back as 1991 of a statistical link between dioxin and diabetes and has since hardened its data based on additional physical exams of veterans. The Air Force is financing research at two academic institutions on a biological link between dioxin and diabetes. Also Linked to Hear t Disease In its report on the health effects on veterans involved in the aerial spraying of Agent Orange in Vietnam, the Air Force said it also found a 26 percent increase in heart disease. The increase was 50 percent among enlisted airmen who served as ground crew for Operation Ranch Hand, the military code name for the spraying campaign. The ground crew are presumed to have had the great exposure to Agent Orange among 1,200 Air Force veterans who were involved in the spraying from 1962 to 1971.